Oxidized a beta peptide

ABSTRACT

The invention provides an Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor, an Aβ peptide toxicity reducing agent, and a preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer&#39;s disease. The oxidized Aβ peptide in which one or more amino acid residues of Aβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβ peptide in which only Met has been oxidized).

This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/898,409filed Dec. 14, 2015, allowed and incorporated herein by reference, whichis a National Stage of PCT/JP2014/065749 filed Jun. 13, 2104 and claimsthe benefit of JP 2013-239622 filed Nov. 20, 2013 and JP 2013-125797filed Jun. 14, 2013.

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to an oxidized Aβ peptide and to apreventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease containingthe oxidized Aβ peptide as an active ingredient.

BACKGROUND ART

Alzheimer's disease is a neurodegenerative disease having pathologicalcharacteristics of degeneration and loss of nerve cells, senile plaqueformation, and neurofibrillary tangle. Alzheimer's disease induces acognitive impairment that a memory, recognition, thinking, judgment, andthe like are lost progressively, and finally leads to death.

The main substance of the senile plaque deposited in the brain isamyloid β peptide (Aβ peptide) composed of 39 to 43 amino acids. Aβpeptide shows cytotoxicity, and this is considered to induce Alzheimer'sdisease (Non-Patent Document 1). Aβ peptide secreted from cells is apolypeptide mainly composed of 40 or 42 amino acids. It is known that,among other Aβ peptides, an Aβ peptide composed of 42 amino acids isaggregated strongly, is deposited in the brain early, and has strongcytotoxicity (Non-Patent Document 2). Accordingly, a medical agent forinhibiting production of Aβ peptide and a medical agent for inhibitingaggregation of Aβ peptide are expected to be useful as a preventiveand/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease.

Concerning a medical agent that inhibits production of Aβ peptide,studies have been focused on a substance capable of inhibitingβ-secretase and γ-secretase, which are enzymes involved in production ofAβ peptide. In addition, an Aβ peptide degrading enzyme promoter, ananti-Aβ peptide antibody, a medical agent that inhibits aggregation ofAβ peptide, or the like have also been studied.

On the other hand, there have been reported that a Met-oxidized Aβpeptide (i.e., an oxidized product of Aβ peptide in which the sulfuratom of the Met residue has been oxidized) is present in a low amount inthe living body, and the Met-oxidized product has lower aggregation thanAβ peptide (Non-Patent Documents 3 to 5).

CITATION LIST Non-Patent Documents

-   Non-Patent Document 1: J. Hardy, D. J. Selkoe, Science 2002, 297,    p353.-   Non-Patent Document 2: S. A. Gravina, et al. J. Biol. Chem., 1995,    Vol. 270, p7013-   Non-Patent Document 3: Hou, L. et al. J. Biol. Chem., 2002, Vol.    277, No. 43, p40173-40176-   Non-Patent Document 4: Bitan, G. et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2003,    Vol. 125, No. 50, p15359-15365-   Non-Patent Document 5: Moskovitz, J. et al. Biochemistry, 2011, 50,    p10687-10697

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Problems to be Solved by the Invention

However, existing inhibitors that inhibit enzymes involved in productionof Aβ peptide cannot sufficiently inhibit production of Aβ peptide,whereas anti-Aβ peptide antibody has not been successfully developed forsafety reasons.

Therefore, it is keenly demanded to develop a preventive and/ortherapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease by inhibiting aggregation ofAβ peptide and reducing toxicity of Aβ peptide from an entirely newviewpoint.

Means for Solving the Problems

In order to inhibit aggregation and to reduce toxicity, the preventinventors have made extensive studies of artificial modification of Aβpeptide. Although Non-Patent Documents 3 to 5 describe that aMet-oxidized Aβ peptide present in vivo shows low aggregation by itself,the present inventors have reached new findings that a specific oxidizedAβ peptide obtained through artificial oxidation of Aβ peptide shows noaggregation by itself, strongly inhibits aggregation of native Aβpeptide, and decreases cytotoxicity of native Aβ peptide. Thus, theinventors have found the oxidized Aβ peptide is useful as a wholly newpreventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease, therebycompleting the present invention.

Specifically, the present invention provides the following [1] to [30].

[1] An oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or more amino acid residues of anAβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβ peptide whereinonly Met has been oxidized).[2] The oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1], wherein one or more aminoacid residues selected from the group consisting of at least Tyr and Hishave been oxidized.[3] A drug, comprising the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2].[4] An Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor, comprising the oxidized Aβpeptide according to [1] or [2] as an active ingredient.[5] An Aβ peptide toxicity reducing agent, comprising the oxidized Aβpeptide according to [1] or [2] as an active ingredient.[6] A preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease,comprising the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] as an activeingredient.[7] A method of producing an oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or moreamino acid residues of an Aβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding anoxidized Aβ peptide wherein only Met has been oxidized), the methodcomprising oxidizing an Aβ peptide.[8] The method of producing an oxidized Aβ peptide according to [7],wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide is an oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one ormore amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of at leastTyr and His have been oxidized.[9] A drug, comprising an oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for anAβ peptide as an active ingredient.[10] An Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor, comprising an oxidizing agentor oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide as an active ingredient.[11] An Aβ peptide toxicity reducing agent, comprising an oxidizingagent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide as an active ingredient.[12] A preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease,comprising an oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide asan active ingredient.[13] Use of the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] forproducing a preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer's disease.[14] Use of the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] forproducing an Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor.[15] Use of the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] forproducing an Aβ peptide toxicity reducing agent.[16] Use of an oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptidefor producing a preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer'sdisease.[17] Use of an oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptidefor producing an Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor.[18] Use of an oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptidefor producing an Aβ peptide toxicity reducing agent.[19] The oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] for use inpreventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease.[20] The oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] for use ininhibiting aggregation of an Aβ peptide.[21] The oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or [2] for use in reducingtoxicity of an Aβ peptide.[22] An oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide for usein preventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease.[23] An oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide for usein inhibiting aggregation of an Aβ peptide.[24] An oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide for usein reducing toxicity of an Aβ peptide.[25] A method of inhibiting aggregation of an Aβ peptide, the methodcomprising administering the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or[2].[26] A method of reducing toxicity of an Aβ peptide, the methodcomprising administering the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1] or[2].[27] A method of preventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease, themethod comprising administering the oxidized Aβ peptide according to [1]or [2].[28] A method of inhibiting aggregation of an Aβ peptide, the methodcomprising oxidizing an Aβ peptide.[29] A method of reducing toxicity of an Aβ peptide, the methodcomprising oxidizing an Aβ peptide.[30] A method of preventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease, themethod comprising oxidizing an Aβ peptide.

Effects of the Invention

By using the oxidized Aβ peptide according to the present invention,aggregation of Aβ peptide can be inhibited and toxicity of Aβ peptidecan be reduced. Therefore, the oxidized Aβ peptide is useful forpreventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease. Also, by using theoxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide, the oxidized Aβpeptide is produced in vivo or within cells, leading to inhibition ofaggregation of Aβ peptide and reduction in toxicity of Aβ peptide. Thus,Alzheimer's disease can be prevented and/or treated.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows oxidation reaction of Aβ1-42 using a photocatalyst,riboflavin. In the sequence of Aβ1-42, symbol * represents sites cleavedby Lys-C. Amino acids that were confirmed to have been oxidized in thepresent invention are underlined.

FIG. 2 shows the results of analysis of oxidation reaction of Aβ1-42 byusing a mass spectrometer (MALD-TOF MS). t represents the reaction time.

FIG. 3 shows comparison between a native Aβ and an oxidized Aβ by aminoacid analysis. The numbers in parentheses represent theoretical numbersof amino acids in Aβ. “Ratio of amino acid” represents a mole ratio ofamino acids in a sample when phenylalanine is taken as 3.

FIG. 4 shows an LC chart obtained from LC/MS analysis after enzymedigestion. LC conditions: C18 reverse phase column (150 (4.6 mm),gradient mode of 0%-100% acetonitrile/0.1% aqueous TFA 40 min, flow rateof 0.9 mL min⁻¹, detection at UV 230 nm). Theoretical mass of Aβfragment after enzyme digestion: Aβ 1-16[M+2 H]²⁺: 977.9, Aβ17-28[M+2H]²⁺: 663.3, Aβ29-42[M+H]⁺: 1269.8.

FIG. 5 shows the results of mass analysis (MALD-TOF MS) after enzymedigestion.

FIG. 6 shows the results of LC/MS/MS analysis of Aβ1-16 obtained afterenzyme digestion. The left three charts are MS spectra at the retentiontime shown at the top of each chart. The right chart shows the resultsof extraction chromatography. LC conditions: C18 reverse-phase column(100 (1.0 mm, 40° C.) with a binary solvent system: linear gradient of2%-42% acetonitrile in 0.1% aqueous formic acid over 20 min at a flowrate of 20 μL min⁻¹).

FIG. 7 shows the MS/MS spectrum of Aβ1-16+16 Da (peak at a retentiontime of 9.2 min in FIG. 6). Adduct of 16 Da was observed from b₁₀ to b₁₃and y₇ to y₁₀ ions, whereas b₂ to b₉ (except for b₄) and y₁ to y₆ ionswere intact, suggesting that +16 Da modification occurred at Tyr¹⁰residue.

FIG. 8 shows (estimated) structures of oxidative modification productsof tyrosine and histidine.

FIG. 9 shows the MS/MS spectrum of Aβ1-16+14 Da (peak at a retentiontime of 10.6 min in FIG. 6). Adduct of 14 Da was observed from b₁₃ tob₁₅ and y₄ to y₁₀ ions, whereas b₆ to b₂ and y₁ to y₃ ions were intact,suggesting that +14 Da modification occurred at His¹³ residue.

FIG. 10 shows the MS/MS spectrum of Aβ1-16+14 Da (peak at a retentiontime of 11.5 min in FIG. 6). Adduct of 14 Da was observed from b₁₄ andb₁₅ and y₃ to y₆ ions, whereas b₆ to b₁₃ and y₁ and y₂ ions were intact,suggesting that +14 Da modification occurred at His¹⁴ residue.

FIG. 11 shows the results of thioflavin T fluorescence assay. (n=6, mean((SD; **p<0.01 versus native Aβ1-42 by Student's t-test).

FIG. 12 shows the results of atomic force microscope analysis. Native Aβis shown left, and oxidized Aβ is shown right, and t represents thereaction time.

FIG. 13 shows the results of circular dichroism spectroscopy analysis. trepresents the reaction time.

FIG. 14 shows comparison in terms of toxicity between native Aβ (E, F,G) and oxidized Aβ (H) using PC12 cells. The vertical axis representscell viability (n=5, mean±SEM; ***p<0.001 versus A or in indicated pairby Tukey's test).

FIG. 15 shows the results of atomic force microscope analysis. The solenative Aβ is shown left. Native Aβ+ oxidized Aβ is shown right.

FIG. 16 shows comparison in terms of toxicity between solo native Aβ (C)and native Aβ+ oxidized Aβ (D) using PC12 cells. The vertical axisrepresents cell viability (n=6, mean±SEM; ***p<0.001 versus A or inindicated pair by Tukey's test).

FIG. 17 shows the evaluation results of cell viability byphoto-oxygenation reaction in the presence of cells. Aβ is native Aβ.Catalyst 1 is riboflavin. Catalyst 2 is Aβ high-affinity peptide-bondedflavin. The vertical axis represents cell viability.

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

The oxidized Aβ peptide according to the present invention is an Aβpeptide in which one or more amino acid residues of an Aβ peptide havebeen oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβ peptide in which only Met hasbeen oxidized).

The Aβ peptide has an amino acid sequence (1-42) represented by SEQ IDNO: 1 or an amino acid sequence (1-40) of the sequence shown by SEQ IDNO: 1.

In the oxidized Aβ peptide according to the present invention, one ormore amino acid residues of 40 or 42 amino acid residues of the Aβpeptide have been oxidized. Preferably, the oxidized Aβ peptide is onein which one or more amino acid residues selected from the groupconsisting of at least Tyr and His have been oxidized. If one or moreamino acid residues selected from the group consisting of Tyr and Hishave been oxidized, oxidized Aβ peptides in which Met has been furtheroxidized fall within the scope. Examples of the preferable oxidized Aβpeptide include a Tyr-oxidized Aβ peptide, a His-oxidized Aβ peptide, aTyr and His-oxidized Aβ peptide, a Tyr and Met-oxidized Aβ peptide, aHis and Met-oxidized Aβ peptide, a Tyr, His and Met-oxidized Aβ peptide,and a combination thereof. Since merely a single Tyr and a single Metare present in the SEQ ID NO: 1, the Tyr and the Met are oxidized. Onthe other hand, since 6His, 13His and 14His are present as to His, allHis's may be oxidized, more preferably, 13His and 14His are oxidized.Oxidation is preferably achieved by oxygen. Specifically, a hydroxylgroup or oxo group (oxide) is more preferably added to each amino acidresidue.

From the mass spectrum analysis of the above-described amino acidresidue-oxidized products, in the case of Tyr, it is estimated that aphenyl group of a tyrosine residue has been substituted with two orthree hydroxyl groups (dihyroxyphenyl group, trihydroxyphenyl group). Inthe case of His, it is estimated that an imidazole ring of a histidineresidue has been oxidized, that is, the histidine residue has adehydroimidazolone ring or a hydroxyimidazolone ring. In the case of theMet, it is estimated that oxygen has been added to a sulfur atom of amethionine residue.

The oxidized Aβ peptide according to the present invention may beproduced by, for example, oxidizing an Aβ peptide. Oxidation reactionmay be such that oxygen atoms are supplied to the amino acid residues ofthe Aβ peptide. Examples of the oxidation reaction include a method inwhich the Aβ peptide is irradiated with light in the presence of oxygenand an oxidation catalyst such as riboflavin, thioflavin T, Congo red,methylene blue, rose bengal, an acridine derivative, porphyrin and ametal complex thereof (metal=iron, manganese, zinc), a rutheniumtris(bipyridine) complex, and a compound produced by bonding an Aβpeptide affinity molecule to these molecules; and a method in which theAβ peptide is reacted with an oxidizing agent such as a peroxide,hypervalent iodine, and perchloric acid.

In the method of using an oxidation catalyst, since oxygen in air or ina solution is consumed, the Aβ peptide and the oxidation catalyst may beadded to a container, and light may be applied thereto for reaction. Thelight may be chosen based on the type of the oxidation catalyst. Thisscheme is particularly preferable because the reaction proceeds underphysiological conditions, for example, at 30 to 40° C.

In the method of using an oxidizing agent, the oxidizing agent may beadded to a solution containing the Aβ peptide to carry out the reaction.

The oxidized Aβ peptide according to the present invention shows anexcellent action for inhibiting aggregation of the Aβ peptide and anexcellent action for reducing toxicity of the Aβ peptide as shown inExamples hereinbelow. Therefore, the oxidized Aβ peptide according tothe present invention is useful as an Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor,an Aβ peptide toxicity reducing agent, and a preventive and/ortherapeutic agent for a disease accompanied by amyloid deposition and Aβpeptide aggregation in animals including a human, e.g., Alzheimer'sdisease and the Down's Syndrome.

When the Aβ peptide is oxidized in vivo or within cells, the oxidized Aβpeptide according to the present invention is generated in vivo orwithin cells. By the oxidized Aβ peptide according to the presentinvention, it is possible to inhibit aggregation of the Aβ peptide, tolower the toxicity of the Aβ peptide, and to prevent and/or treatAlzheimer's disease.

In order to oxidize Aβ peptides in vivo or within cells, the oxidizingagent or oxidation catalyst may be introduced in vivo or into cells toinduce oxidation reaction. Examples of the oxidizing agent used hereininclude the oxidizing agents listed in the case of producing oxidized Aβpeptides, e.g., peroxide, hypervalent iodine, and perchloric acid. Also,the reaction using an oxidation catalyst and light may be employed.Light may be applied in a similar manner to a photodynamic therapyprocedure, for example.

Specifically, the oxidation catalyst may be introduced in vivo or intocells. Once the oxidation catalyst reaches the target site, light may beirradiated. A way to administer the oxidation catalyst or oxidizingagent in vivo includes intramuscular injection, intravenous injection,local administration, and oral administration.

In order to selectively oxidize Aβ peptides in vivo or within cells, ariboflavin derivative may be synthesized by bonding a molecule havingaffinity with Aβ peptide to riboflavin or thioflavin T, and the Aβpeptide may be reacted with the riboflavin derivative. Examples of theAβ peptide affinity molecule include thioflavin T, Congo red, a stilbenederivative, a polythiophene derivative, an acridine derivative, anaminonaphtyl derivative, a Lys-Leu-Val-Phe-Phe (SEQ ID NO: 2)derivative, curcumin, myricetin, rifampicin and nordihydroguaiareticacid.

A component that causes production of oxidized Aβ peptides in vivo orwithin cells, i.e., an oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst, is usefulas an Aβ peptide aggregation inhibitor, an Aβ peptide toxicity reducingagent, and a preventive and/or therapeutic agent for Alzheimer'sdisease.

A drug according to the present invention contains the oxidized Aβpeptide or the oxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptideas an active ingredient.

If the oxidized Aβ peptide or the oxidizing agent or oxidation catalystfor an Aβ peptide according to the present invention is used as atherapeutic agent for humans, the daily dose for an adult is 1 mg to 1g, preferably 10 mg to 300 mg.

A pharmaceutical composition containing the oxidized Aβ peptide or theoxidizing agent or oxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide according to thepresent invention may be prepared through a preparation method employedfor a variety of drug formulations by selecting an appropriate drugformulation depending on the administration route and using apharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Examples of the dosage form of thepharmaceutical composition containing the product of the presentinvention as a main component include oral drug formulations such astablets, powders, granules, capsules, liquids, syrups, elixirs, and oilor aqueous suspensions.

When an injection is prepared, a stabilizer, a preservative, and asolubilizing agent may be added to the drug formulation. A solution thatsometimes contains such an adjuvant may be stored in a container andthen subjected to lyophilization or the like to form a solid drugformulation which is prepared just before use. A single dose may bestored in one container. Also, a multiple dosage may be stored in onecontainer.

Examples of an external preparation include liquid formulations,suspensions, emulsions, ointments, gels, creams, lotions, sprays, andpatches.

A solid drug formation contains a pharmaceutically acceptable additivetogether with the oxidized Aβ peptide or the oxidizing agent oroxidation catalyst for an Aβ peptide according to the present invention.For example, fillers, extenders, binders, disintegrants, dissolutionpromoters, wetting agents, and lubricants may be chosen as needed andmixed for drug formation.

Examples of a liquid formulation include solutions, suspensions, andemulsions, and the liquid formulation may include a suspending agent, anemulsifying agent or the like as an additive.

EXAMPLES

Hereinafter, the present invention will be described in detail by way ofExamples. It should be noted that the scope of the present invention isnot limited to the Examples described below.

Example 1 (Details of Each Experimental Method) (1) Experiments ofThioflavin T Assay

A phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4) in which Aβ1-42 (20 μM) andriboflavin (4 μM) had been dissolved was incubated at 37° C. underirradiation with a fluorescent lamp (24 W, natural white, a distancebetween a light source and a reaction mixture was about 3 cm). A part ofthe reaction mixture (10 μL) was added to a 50 mM glycine-NaOH buffer(pH 8.5, 400 μL) containing thioflavin T (5 μM), and the resultantmixture was immediately mixed to measure a fluorescence intensity ofthioflavin T. In the fluorescence intensity measurement, an excitationwavelength was 440 nm, and a fluorescence wavelength was 470 nm.

(2) Experiments of Atomic Force Microscope Analysis

A phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4) in which Aβ1-42 (20 μM) andriboflavin (4 μM) had been dissolved was incubated at 37° C. underirradiation with a fluorescent lamp (24 W, natural white, a distancebetween a light source and a reaction mixture was about 3 cm). A part ofthe reaction mixture (10 μL) was added on mica, incubated at roomtemperature for 3 minutes, washed with 20 μL of water, and air dried.The measurement was carried out using Nano Wizard II (JPK instrumentsAG, Berlin, Germany) in a tapping mode in air at room temperature.

(3) Experiments of Circular Dichroism Spectroscopy Analysis

A phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH7.4) in which Aβ1-42 (20 μM) and riboflavin(4 μM) had been dissolved was incubated at 37° C. under irradiation witha fluorescent lamp (24 W, natural white, a distance between a lightsource and a reaction mixture was about 3 cm). A part of the reactionmixture was analyzed using Model 202SF (AVIV Biomedical, Inc., Lakewood,N.J.).

(4) Cell Experiments

PC12 cells, i.e., rat adrenal medulla-derived pheochromocytoma(purchased from RIKEN, Japan), were used. A phosphate buffer (pH 7.4) inwhich Aβ1-42 (20 μM) and riboflavin (4 μM) had been dissolved wasincubated at room temperature under irradiation with a fluorescent lamp(24 W, natural white, a distance between a light source and a reactionmixture was about 3 cm). A part of the reaction mixture (50 μL) wasadded to a cell culture medium (50 μL) (final Aβ concentration was 10μM), and the mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 48 hours under 5% CO₂atmosphere. Cells were observed and photographed using an invertedmicroscope DMI6000 B (Leica Microsystems GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany)equipped with a digital camera DFC360 FX (Leica Microsystems GmbH). Acell count reagent containing WST-8(2-(2-methoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfonyl)-2H-tetrazolium,monosodium salt) (10 μL) was added to the mixture. The mixture wasincubated at 37° C. for 6 hours under 5% CO₂ atmosphere. Thereafter,absorbance at 450 nm (reference wavelength: 655 nm) was measured byiMark™ plate reader (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, Calif.).

Example 2 Oxidation Reaction

A phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4) in which Aβ1-42 (SEQ ID NO: 1) (20μM) and riboflavin (4 μM) had been dissolved was incubated at 37° C.under irradiation with a fluorescent lamp (24 W, natural white, adistance between a light source and a reaction mixture was about 3 cm)(FIG. 1), and the reaction was monitored by a mass spectrometer(MALD-TOF MS) (FIG. 2). After the reaction was carried out for 3 hours,along with disappearance of the raw material Aβ1-42, it was observed aspectrum of oxidized Aβ to which one to eight oxygen atoms were added.The same sample was analyzed for amino acids. As a result, the amountsof tyrosine and histidine were decreased to about half of a non-oxidizedcontrol sample (FIG. 3). By the same analysis, it was also observed thatthe amount of methionine was slightly decreased. The results revealedthat the oxidation reactions of tyrosine, histidine, and methionineproceeded. Thus, by the results of a mass spectrometry measurement, itwas found that almost Aβ1-42 was oxidized after the reaction for 3hours.

In order to analyze the oxidized structure in more detail, a sample ofthe oxidized Aβ1-42 was digested by enzyme, i.e., endopeptidase Lys-C(cleaving on the C terminal side of Lys (see FIG. 1), purchased fromHoffmann-La Roche Ltd., Basel, Switzerland) (Aβ was reacted with 1/50amount of the enzyme at 37° C. for about 12 hours). The resultantdigested material was analyzed by LC/MS (ESI-TOF) and the massspectrometer (MALD-TOF MS). In the LC/MS analysis, a 16 Da adduct ofAβ29-42 was detected (FIG. 4). This result and the results of the formeramino acid analysis indicate that a methionine side chain at position 35was oxidized to a sulfoxide. By the mass spectrometer (MALD-TOF MS),Aβ17-28 was detected, and no oxygen atom adduct was observed (FIG. 5).It shows that Aβ17-28 was not oxidized. On the other hand, the massspectrometer (MALD-TOF MS) shows a peak group corresponding to adductsin which one to six oxygen atoms were added to Aβ1-16 (FIG. 5).Furthermore, Aβ1-16 was analyzed by LC/MS/MS (ESI-Qq-TOF). As a result,a 16 Da adduct of Aβ1-16 was detected (FIG. 6, left lower spectrumdiagram), and the peak at a retention time of 9.2 min (FIG. 6, rightspectrum) was found to be derived from molecule species in whichtyrosine at position 10 was modified by +16 Da (FIG. 7). It may beconceivable that tyrosine was oxidized to 3,4-dihyroxyphenylalanine(FIG. 8). By the LC/MS/MS (ESI-Qq-TOF) analysis, a 14 Da adduct ofAβ1-16 was also detected (FIG. 6, left center spectrum), and it wassuggested that the peaks at a retention time of 10.6 min and a retentiontime of 11.5 min (FIG. 6, right spectrum) correspond to 14 Da adducts ofhistidine at position 13 and histidine at position 14, respectively(FIG. 9 and FIG. 10, respectively). It may be conceivable that histidinewas oxidized to a dehydro-2-imidazolone derivative (FIG. 8). Also, a 28Da adduct, a 30 Da adduct, and a 44 Da adduct were detected. It isconceivable that these are derived from multiple oxidation of tyrosineat position 10, histidine at position 13, and histidine at position 14.In view of the peak group corresponding to the adducts in which one tosix oxygen atoms were added shown by the mass spectrometry (MALD-TOFMS), it suggests the presence of the compound in which a plurality ofoxygen atoms are added to one tyrosine or histidine. For example,estimated is 3,4,5-trihydroxyphenylalanine in the case of tyrosine orhydroxy-2-imidazolone derivative in the case of histidine (FIG. 8).(See 1) Pattison, D. I., Rahmanto, A. S. & Davies, M. J. Photo-oxidationof proteins. Photochem. Photobiol. Sci. 11, 38-53 (2012). 2) Schey, K.L. & Finley, E. L. Identification of peptide oxidation by tandem massspectrometry. Acc. Chem. Res. 33, 299-306 (2000)). As described above,by a riboflavin catalyst system, it was confirmed that the oxidationreactions of tyrosine at position 10, histidine at position 13,histidine at position 14, and methionine at position 35 proceeded.

Example 3 Investigation of Aggregation

A phosphate buffer (10 mM, pH 7.4) in which Aβ1-42 (20 μM) andriboflavin (4 μM) had been dissolved was incubated at 37° C. underirradiation with a fluorescent lamp (24 W, natural white, a distancebetween a light source and a reaction mixture was about 3 cm) to providea sample “oxidized Aβ”. A phosphate buffer having the same compositionwas reacted with no irradiation to provide a sample “native Aβ” as acontrol. Aggregation of each sample was evaluated by thioflavin T assay(it is known that fluorescence intensity of thioflavin T corresponds tothe amount of an aggregate being rich in β sheet structure) (FIG. 11).At the incubation time of 3 hours and 6 hours, the fluorescenceintensity of thioflavin T of the oxidized Aβ was significantly lowerthan that of the native Aβ. The results suggest that the oxidized Aβ haslow aggregation. By the atomic force microscope analysis, fibrilformation was clearly observed in the native Aβ, but hardly in theoxidized Aβ (FIG. 12). Furthermore, by the circular dichroismspectroscopy analysis, it was found that there was a transition from arandom coil structure to a p sheet structure in the native Aβ, but therandom coil structure was maintained in the oxidized Aβ (FIG. 13).

Example 4 Investigation of Cytotoxicity

PC12 cells, i.e., rat adrenal medulla-derived pheochromocytoma (neuralmodel cells), were used to compare cytotoxicity of the native Aβ and theoxidized Aβ (FIG. 14). In the presence of the native Aβ (10 μM), 90% ormore of the cells died. In contrast, in the presence of the oxidized Aβ(10 μM), a cell viability of 50% or more was maintained. Only in thepresence of the native Aβ, an apoptotic cell death was observed. Theresults show that the oxidative modification significantly lowered thecytotoxicity.

Example 5 Inhibition of Aggregation and Cytotoxicity of Native Aβ

By the atomic force microscope analysis, when the native Aβ (20 μM) wasincubated (37° C., 6 hours) in the coexistence of the oxidized Aβ (20μM), an amyloid fibril content was significantly decreased as comparedwith the case of the native Aβ (20 μM) alone (FIG. 15). The results showthat the oxidized Aβ inhibited the aggregation of the native Aβ. In thepresence of the native Aβ (10 μM), the cell viability of the PC 12 cellswas about 20%. In contrast, when the oxidized Aβ (10 μM) coexisted withthe native Aβ (10 μm), the cell viability was 60% or more (FIG. 16). Theresults show that the oxidized Aβ inhibited the cytotoxicity of thenative Aβ.

Example 6

PC12 cells, i.e., rat adrenal medulla-derived pheochromocytoma(purchased from RIKEN, Japan), were used. In a plate well in which thePC12 cells had been seeded, a phosphate buffer (pH 7.4, 50 μL)containing 20 μM of Aβ and a catalyst (Catalyst 1 in 4 μM or Catalyst 2in 20 μM) was irradiated with 500 nm LED (light emitting diode) at 37°C. for 15 minutes. After the reaction, 50 μL of a HEPES buffer solutioncontaining a 0.1% horse serum-containing medium was added to thereto(final Aβ concentration: 10 μM). The mixture was incubated at 37° C. for48 hours under 5% CO₂ atmosphere. A cell count reagent containing WST-8(2-(2-methoxy-4-nitrophenyl)-3-(4-nitrophenyl)-5-(2,4-disulfonyl)-2H-tetrazolium,monosodium salt) (10 μL) was added to the mixture. The mixture wasincubated at 37° C. for 6 hours under 5% CO₂ atmosphere. Thereafter,absorbance at 450 nm (reference wavelength: 655 nm) was measured byiMark™ plate reader (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc., Hercules, Calif.).

FIG. 17 shows the results. In order to achieve Aβ selective oxidation, apeptide having a high affinity for Aβ, D-[Lys-Leu-Val-Phe(4-phenyl)-Phe](SEQ ID NO: 3) was identified, and was bonded to flavin as an affinitytag of Aβ (Catalyst 2 in FIG. 17). Catalyst 2 or riboflavin itself(Catalyst 1 in FIG. 17) was added to a phosphate buffer containing Aβ,and the mixture was irradiated with light in the presence of cells. 500nm LED was used as a light source, and light was irradiated at 37° C.for 15 minutes. Here, as Catalyst 2 had oxidation activity lower thanriboflavin itself, Catalyst 2 was used in an amount of five times thatof riboflavin. It was confirmed that Catalysts 1 and 2 oxidized Aβ to asimilar extent (about 60%) under the present conditions. After theoxidation reaction, the cells were further incubated for 2 days, and thecell viability was determined thereafter (bar graph in FIG. 17). Whenriboflavin was used under the light irradiation condition (comparisonbetween f and h), almost all cells died regardless of the presence orabsence of Aβ. It is conceivable that the cells were damaged due tonon-specific oxidation. On the other hand, when Catalyst 2 was used inthe absence of Aβ under the condition j, 50% or more of the cellssurvived after the light irradiation. It is conceivable that as Catalyst2 itself has a relatively low oxidation activity, a random oxidationreaction of biomolecules may be inhibited. On the other hand, in thepresence of Aβ (comparison between k and l), when the light wasirradiated, the cell viability was significantly increased as comparedwith the case of no light irradiation. It is conceivable that Aβ wasoxidized and detoxified, and thus the cell death was avoided. Asdescribed above, by using Catalyst 2, in the presence of the cells, theAβ selective oxidation reaction successfully decreased the toxicity ofAβ.

1. A method of producing an oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or moreamino acid residues of an Aβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding anoxidized Aβ peptide wherein only Met has been oxidized), the methodcomprising oxidizing an Aβ peptide.
 2. The method according to claim 1,wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide is an oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one ormore amino acid residues selected from the group consisting of at leastTyr and His have been oxidized.
 3. The method according to claim 1,wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide comprises histidine 13 oxidized as a 14Da adduct and histidine 14 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct.
 4. The methodaccording to claim 1, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide further comprisesat least one of oxidized Histidine 6, oxidized Tyrosine 10, and oxidizedMethionine
 35. 5. A method of inhibiting aggregation of an Aβ peptide,the method comprising administering the oxidized Aβ peptide wherein oneor more amino acid residues of an Aβ peptide have been oxidized(excluding an oxidized Aβ peptide wherein only Met has been oxidized).6. The method according to claim 5, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide isan oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or more amino acid residues selectedfrom the group consisting of at least Tyr and His have been oxidized. 7.The method according to claim 5, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptidecomprises histidine 13 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct and histidine 14oxidized as a 14 Da adduct.
 8. The method according to claim 5, whereinthe oxidized Aβ peptide further comprises at least one of oxidizedHistidine 6, oxidized Tyrosine 10, and oxidized Methionine
 35. 9. Amethod of reducing toxicity of an Aβ peptide, the method comprisingadministering the oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or more amino acidresidues of an Aβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβpeptide wherein only Met has been oxidized).
 10. The method according toclaim 9, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide is an oxidized Aβ peptidewherein one or more amino acid residues selected from the groupconsisting of at least Tyr and His have been oxidized.
 11. The methodaccording to claim 9, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide compriseshistidine 13 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct and histidine 14 oxidized as a14 Da adduct.
 12. The method according to claim 9, wherein the oxidizedAβ peptide further comprises at least one of oxidized Histidine 6,oxidized Tyrosine 10, and oxidized Methionine
 35. 13. A method ofpreventing and/or treating Alzheimer's disease, the method comprisingadministering the oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or more amino acidresidues of an Aβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβpeptide wherein only Met has been oxidized).
 14. The method according toclaim 13, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide is an oxidized Aβ peptidewherein one or more amino acid residues selected from the groupconsisting of at least Tyr and His have been oxidized.
 15. The methodaccording to claim 13, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide compriseshistidine 13 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct and histidine 14 oxidized as a14 Da adduct.
 16. The method according to claim 13, wherein the oxidizedAβ peptide further comprises at least one of oxidized Histidine 6,oxidized Tyrosine 10, and oxidized Methionine
 35. 17. A method ofinhibiting aggregation of an Aβ peptide, the method comprising oxidizingan Aβ peptide to the oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or more amino acidresidues of an Aβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβpeptide wherein only Met has been oxidized).
 18. The method according toclaim 17, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide comprises histidine 13oxidized as a 14 Da adduct and histidine 14 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct.19. The method according to claim 17, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptidefurther comprises at least one of oxidized Histidine 6, oxidizedTyrosine 10, and oxidized Methionine
 35. 20. A method of reducingtoxicity of an Aβ peptide, the method comprising oxidizing an Aβ peptideto the oxidized Aβ peptide wherein one or more amino acid residues of anAβ peptide have been oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβ peptide whereinonly Met has been oxidized).
 21. The method according to claim 20,wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide comprises histidine 13 oxidized as a 14Da adduct and histidine 14 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct.
 22. The methodaccording to claim 20, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide further comprisesat least one of oxidized Histidine 6, oxidized Tyrosine 10, and oxidizedMethionine
 35. 23. A method of preventing and/or treating Alzheimer'sdisease, the method comprising oxidizing an Aβ peptide to the oxidizedAβ peptide wherein one or more amino acid residues of an Aβ peptide havebeen oxidized (excluding an oxidized Aβ peptide wherein only Met hasbeen oxidized).
 24. The method according to claim 23, wherein theoxidized Aβ peptide comprises histidine 13 oxidized as a 14 Da adductand histidine 14 oxidized as a 14 Da adduct.
 25. The method according toclaim 23, wherein the oxidized Aβ peptide further comprises at least oneof oxidized Histidine 6, oxidized Tyrosine 10, and oxidized Methionine35.